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Introduction
This paper examines three ancient structures—the Parthenon, the Tomb of Cyrus the Great, and the Temple of Anahita—highlighting their transformations over time and shared similarities. These sites were all adapted for Islamic worship, featuring mosques enclosed by columns, and were associated with revered female figures. Their histories reveal recurring patterns of religious repurposing, architectural alteration, and destruction.
The Parthenon, Two Ottoman Mosques
The Parthenon, originally built in the 5th century BCE as a Greek temple dedicated to Athena, served as Athens' treasury and a symbol of its power after the Greek victory over the Persians. Over the centuries, it was repurposed—first as a church and later as two successive mosques. (1, 122, Ousterhout, 2005).
The first Islamic mosque was established in the Parthenon after the Ottoman conquest of Athens, likely between 1466 and 1470 following the Acropolis's surrender in 1458. This conversion involved modifying the existing Christian structure by repurposing the apse into a mihrab, extending the church tower into a minaret, and installing a minbar.
The first mosque was destroyed by a Venetian bombardment in 1687 during the Siege of the Acropolis (Ousterhout, 2005, 122).
The Second Mosque
A second, smaller, free-standing Islamic mosque was built within the ruins of the Parthenon in the early 18th century, potentially around 1708 . It featured a square plan covered by a dome raised above an octagonal transition, and included a three-bayed porch with small domical vaults . The mosque was oriented at an angle with a portico and was constructed using reused stones .This "shabby" structure was eventually dismantled in 1843 to allow for archaeological work on the Acropolis (Ousterhout, 2005).
The Tomb of Cyrus , Mosque of the Mother of Solomon
The Tomb of Cyrus , a monumental structure in Pasargadae, Iran, has undergone significant transformations since its construction in the 6th century BCE. Following the Muslim conquest of Persia in the 7th century CE, the tomb was reidentified as the Tomb of Solomon’s Mother (Qabr-e Madar-e Soliman), referencing either the biblical Bathsheba or Caliph Sulaimon ibn Abd al-Malik.
During the 13th century, the tomb was adapted for Islamic worship. Built during the Atabakan-e-Fars era , this structure transformed the tomb into a pilgrimage site. Local traditions and travelers’ accounts confirm its religious significance, particularly for women pilgrims (Iran Negin Travel, n.d.; Surfiran, 2024). By the Qajar period, it was widely regarded as a mosque (Soltani & Nadimi, 2017).
Architectural Modifications
During the medieval Islamic period, the Tomb of Cyrus underwent notable architectural modifications as it was repurposed into a mosque. The tomb’s transformation involved adding a portico, likely built with materials from nearby Achaemenid ruins, and incorporating Islamic elements, including a mihrab carved into the chamber’s wall to guide worshippers toward Mecca. These changes not only facilitated its use as a place of Islamic worship and pilgrimage but also ensured the monument’s preservation by embedding it within the religious landscape of the time (World History Edu, 2024; CAIS-SOAS, 1998).
The article The Tomb of Cyrus (1851) states the following:
"The tomb might have been violated and sacked over time. Eventually, the Muslims turned it into a shrine for pilgrims, dedicated to Mother of Solomon . This transformation involved some alterations to the interior, including the engraving of Arabic lines from the Koran and the tracing of a Qibla. It became a celebrated place of worship, mainly visited by women, under the name Mother of Solomon.
The author notes that shafts of a few pillars are still seen standing around the tomb . However, it is uncertain if these are in their original positions or were erected at the same time as the mausoleum . The source proposes that modern Persians might have moved pillar fragments from nearby ruins to encircle the tomb when it was restored in honor of Mother of Solomon. (The Tomb of Cyrus, 1853, p. 255)
Additionally, Islamic gravestones / sarcophagi were found around the Tomb of Cyrus, as reported and photographed by Herzfeld in the early 20th century. Later, these sarcophagi were removed. The pillars were also taken down during restorations in the 20th century, particularly during the 1971 celebrations of the Persian Empire’s 2,500th anniversary. (Lendering, n.d.)
It is important to note that they are , in fact , not gravestones but sarcophagi. Remember that burying the dead inside stone sarcophagi is not an Islamic tradition. One of the images shows the gate with same kind of inscription. Archaeologists claim that Muslims buried bodies in sarcophagi around a pre-Islamic structure to preserve the Tomb of Cyrus . That is absurd.
Temple of Anahita, Imamzadeh / Mosque inside
It is a large structure with its great Ionic columns set on a high massive stone platform. Significantly, the Kangavar platform also features later Islamic constructions. On the northwestern corner of the platform stands a mosque and an Imamzadeh, partly constructed during the Ilkhanid and Safavid periods (Zournatzi, Kleiss).
The historical platform known as the Anahita Temple in Kangavar has faced destruction due to various activities over time . In the 19th and early 20th centuries, the ruins were subjected to vast devastation as the site was used as a quarry to obtain building materials for the expanding settlement of modern Kangavar .More recently, in January 2010, reports and pictures emerged showing new construction activities causing damage to the ancient platform.
Figure 5 : The 1840s drawing by Eugène Flandin depicts the Temple of Anahita, which he referred to as "the Greek temple." The presence of a mosque within the site is notable. The structure appears to be an unfinished Greek temple in its early construction stages, possibly intended to resemble the Parthenon.
Discussion
Architectural Features: Mosques and Columns
These historical sites share a distinctive architectural feature: a mosque surrounded by columns. While these columns have suffered various degrees of destruction the mosques themselves have largely remained structurally intact. In the case of the Ottoman mosque, this refers to the period before its deliberate destruction, and for the Tomb of Cyrus, it pertains to the time before the removal of its pillars.
Ancient Origins
These sites were constructed centuries ago and have undergone modifications. Scholars widely agree on their original dates: the Tomb of Cyrus dates to the 6th century BCE, while the Parthenon was built in the 5th century BCE.
However, the dating of the Temple of Anahita at Kangavar remains debated, with estimates ranging from the Achaemenid period (possibly beginning in the 6th century BCE) to the late Sasanian period (mid-7th century CE). I see this broad range as reflecting changing perspectives among archaeologists. Over time, as the idea of a Greek temple inside Iran became less acceptable, what was once identified as such was gradually reinterpreted as a Sasanian palace. This reflects how historical narratives adapt to changing cultural perspectives and ideological and political needs.
Islamic Transformation
According to conventional historical accounts, three historical sites underwent significant Islamic modifications. The Parthenon was converted into a mosque after the Ottoman conquest of Athens (late 15th century), with a smaller mosque built within its ruins in the early 1700s. The Tomb of Cyrus, surrounded by a square portico since the 13th century, became known as the "Mosque of the Mother of Solomon." The Imamzadeh at Kangavar was partially constructed during the Ilkhanid (13th-14th centuries) and Safavid (16th-18th centuries) periods. However, the exact circumstances of these transformations remain unclear. While historical records and inscriptions offer some insights, the full extent, motivations, and timeline of these modifications are not fully documented. Interpretations rely on fragmentary evidence and comparisons with similar sites.
Scholars argue that the pillars surrounding the Tomb of Cyrus were relocated from a nearby structure, a theory that emerged in the early 20th century. Western archaeologists, particularly Ernst Herzfeld, played a key role in shaping this interpretation through his surveys of Pasargadae in the 1920s. However, the symmetry of the pillars and the presence of a gateway suggest that they were part of the tomb’s original design rather than later additions. Furthermore, similar colonnades have been observed in two other mosques, reinforcing the idea that these structural elements were intentionally integrated rather than repurposed.
The claim that Muslims placed the pillars around the central structure is based on textual analysis rather than direct archaeological evidence. This hypothesis, proposed by archaeologists, relies on descriptions in historical texts that depict Cyrus’s tomb without surrounding pillars. As a result, the existing pillars were interpreted as later additions. Over time, this theory became widely accepted as fact, leaving little room for skepticism or alternative interpretations.
Association with Female Figures
There is another similarity. The Tomb of Cyrus, the Temple of Anahita at Kangavar, and the Parthenon in Athens have all been associated with female figures . The Parthenon was dedicated to Athena, the virgin goddess of wisdom and war, much like how the Temple of Anahita at Kangavar was associated with the goddess Anahita, linked to fertility and water . Similarly, the Tomb of Cyrus, was connected to a female figure, identified as Solomon’s mother.
It’s interesting to learn that the Parthenon was transformed into a Christian church dedicated to the Virgin Mary. Similarly, during the Qajar era, local people referred to the Tomb of Cyrus as Mashhad of the Mother of Suleiman, or Mashhad um al-Nabi. The term "ام النبی" (Um al-Nabi) means "Mother of the Prophet," akin to Mary, the mother of Jesus.
Objects with Arabic Inscriptions
An interesting aspect to consider is the presence of objects with Arabic inscriptions around the sites. Since I haven't found any records of such inscriptions around the Temple of Anahita, I'll focus on two other sites. At Pasargadae, Arabic inscriptions appear in Islamic gravestones / sarcophagi near the Tomb of Cyrus and on the mihrab inside the tomb itself. Similarly, Miles (1956) noted that Arabic inscriptions have been discovered on the slopes of the Acropolis in Athens. He also mentioned finding some Turkish gravestones in the same area.
Destruction and Alteration
Three sites have undergone extensive changes; alongside "natural" demolition over the years , restoration efforts have also contributed to their destruction. "The reoccupation of the Acropolis by Greeks after 1833 led to the demolition of almost all Turkish structures . This action included the clearing of a dense Turkish neighborhood that had developed in the ruins and the removal of a small mosque that had been erected within the Parthenon . This systematic removal of Ottoman buildings reflects an effort to reclaim the Acropolis and emphasize its classical Greek heritage". (Neils, 2005).
I previously noted that pillars from the Cyrus tomb site were removed and used to build a palace for him. Additionally, some gravestones and sarcophagi were taken from the site, and their current locations are unknown. By gathering data and conducting comparative analysis, we can explore the possible reasons behind these acts of destruction and removal.
The Anahita Temple has also suffered destruction. It was unearthed by the archeologists . Then, over the years, its materials were used for the construction of new houses.
Below is a concise comparative table summarizing the similarities among the three sites
| Aspect | Parthenon (Athens) | Tomb of Cyrus (Pasargadae, Iran) | Temple of Anahita (Kangavar, Iran) |
| Original Construction | • 5th century BCE Greek temple dedicated to Athena; symbol of Athenian power. | • 6th century BCE monumental Tomb for Cyrus the Great. | • Date debated: from Achaemenid (6th century BCE) to later Parthian/Sasanian or a late Sasanian palace (AD 590–628). |
| Islamic Transformation | • Converted into a mosque after the Ottoman conquest (~1466–1470), adapting a former Christian church (apse → mihrab, tower → minaret). | • Reidentified as the "Tomb of Solomon’s Mother" ; a mosque was built around it in the 13th century. | • Later Islamic additions include a mosque and an Imamzadeh built during the Ilkhanid (13th–14th centuries) and Safavid (16th–18th centuries) periods. |
| Association with Female Figures | • Initially dedicated to Athena; later linked to the Virgin Mary in Christian/Islamic phases. | • Named to a revered female figure (Mother of Solomon) | • Traditionally associated with the goddess Anahita, linked to fertility and water. |
| Architectural Integration | • Built as a columned temple; mosque conversion reused key elements (e.g., apse, tower). | • Incorporates a square portico with columns/pillars and Islamic elements (e.g., carved mihrab). | • Exhibits Greco-Roman features (columns, staircases) with later Islamic modifications that complement the original structure. |
| Epigraphic Evidence | • Arabic inscriptions recorded on the slopes of the Acropolis; Turkish gravestones also noted. | • Arabic inscriptions appear on nearby gravestones and inside the mihrab. | • No significant Arabic inscriptions have been documented. |
| Restoration / Destruction | • The first mosque was destroyed in 1687 (Venetian bombardment); a second mosque (~1708) was dismantled in 1843 by liberated Greeks, with subsequent removal of Ottoman structures to reclaim classical heritage. | • Later Islamic additions (pillars, gravestones) were removed during 20th-century restorations to reveal its original Achaemenid form. | • The site has suffered damage from quarrying and modern construction, with ongoing debates reflecting its continual alteration and conservation challenges. |
Conclusion
The Parthenon, the Tomb of Cyrus the Great, and the Temple of Anahita at Kangavar are ancient structures that underwent major transformations. All three share striking similarities, including associations with revered female figures and the distinctive use of mosques surrounded by columns. They also experienced cycles of alteration, destruction, and restoration. By comparing these shared patterns, we can shed light on enigmatic features of these historical sites, uncovering the truth behind their complex histories and the reasons why parts of them have been destroyed.
Further Research
Based on comparative analysis, there are theories that require verification.
The shared architectural features of the three buildings indicate that they were built by civilizations with cultural connections, reflecting common design traditions and influences. However, they show different phases of completion: the Parthenon had been fully completed before the Ottoman conquest, whereas the Tomb of Cyrus remained in a less advanced stage of construction, and the Temple of Anahita was still in its early construction phase. Unlike the Parthenon, the latter two structures are unfinished projects.
Dr. Fomenko's view on the Parthenon : "It is possible that from the very beginning the Parthenon was a Christian church, where elements were still very closely intertwined, which only later began to be separated and attributed either exclusively to Islam, or exclusively to Orthodoxy, or exclusively to Catholicism." Comparatively , there are elements of Paganism , Islam , Jewish and Shia in the two other sites.
The builders of these structures used Arabic as their religious language, with Kufic script as a defining characteristic. Unlike modern Islam, their tradition incorporated elements shared with Christianity and Paganism. The historical presence of this civilization has been denied by traditional narratives, leading to the deliberate destruction of its remaining traces.
References
Asia Archive. (2016, February 12). Heart of an Empire: Herzfeld's Discovery of Pasargadae. Heart of an Empire: Herzfeld's Discovery of Pasargadae - Smithsonian's National Museum of Asian Art
CAIS Archaeological News. (2010, January 20). Sections of Anahita Temple at Kangavar destroyed by new construction.
Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery Archives. (n.d.). Pasargadae | Squeeze Imaging Project. Retrieved from Archives | Freer|Sackler
Iran Negin Travel. (n.d.). Tomb of Cyrus. Retrieved from Tomb of Cyrus
Kleiss, W. (2010). Kangavar. In Encyclopedia Iranica (Vol. XV, No. 5, pp. 496-497). Retrieved from https://iranicaonline.org/articles/kangavar-1
Lendering, J. (n.d.). Pasargadae, Tomb of Cyrus. Livius.org. Retrieved from https://www.livius.org/articles/place/pasargadae/pasargadae-tomb-of-cyrus/
Livius.org. . (2020, August 13). Pasargadae, Tomb of Cyrus. Retrieved from Pasargadae, Tomb of Cyrus - Livius
Miles, G. C. (1956). The Arab Mosque in Athens. Hesperia, 25(4), 330-344.
Ousterhout, R. (2005). “Bestride the Very Peak of Heaven”: The Parthenon after Antiquity. In J. Neils (Ed.), The Parthenon: From Antiquity to the Present (pp. 296-337). Cambridge University Press.
Surfiran. (2024, November 30). Tomb of Cyrus the Great: Achaemenid Empire Founder. Retrieved from Tomb Of Cyrus The Great: Achaemenid Empire Founder
The Tomb of Cyrus. (1853). The Illustrated Magazine of Art, 1(5), 255-256.
Tournikiotis, P. (Ed.). (2009). The Parthenon and its impact in modern times. Abrams.
Wikipedia. (2024). Tomb of Cyrus the Great. Retrieved from Tomb of Cyrus the Great - Wikipedia
Wikipedia. (n.d.). Temple of Anahita, Kangavar. Retrieved from Temple of Anahita, Kangavar - Wikipedia
World History Edu. (2024, December 11). Tomb of Cyrus the Great. Retrieved from Tomb of Cyrus the Great - World History Edu
Zournatzi, A. (2016). Kangāvar: The so-called Temple of Artemis-Anāhitā. In Mapping Ancient Cultural Encounters: Greeks in Iran ca. 550 BC - ca. AD 650. Online edition. Retrieved from Kangāvar The so-called Temple of Artemis-Anāhitā
