Does anybody is familiar with the book of the Russian Alternative historian Alexander Tamanski " The different history of the Roman Empire"? Lots of interesting researched results and info. He also have the Youtube channel with most of the info in the form of films he created. But it's all in Russian.. Curious if it's possible to get the Google or other online translators to watch in English?
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This reinterpretation of history, presented in A. Tamansky's "Another History of the Roman Empire," challenges widely accepted chronologies by proposing that
Antiquity and the Renaissance are, in fact, the same era. The core argument is that historians in the 18th and 19th centuries deliberately manipulated historical events and timelines to serve specific political and religious agendas, creating a "correct" but ultimately false version of the past.
The Question of Historical Sources and the Rise of Chronicles
The book begins by questioning the origins of historical study itself, suggesting that the need to analyze historical sources only truly emerged with the appearance of
chronicles. Tamansky argues that the technical conditions for writing, suitable materials, and, crucially, a stable demand for chronicles, especially for
mass production, did not exist before the era of printing. This demand for chronicles intensified with the high prices commanded by "ancient manuscripts," which spurred an "entire industry of counterfeiting antiques." Before printing, the primary patrons for expensive handwritten books were the Church and later university libraries, mainly for theological texts. Other genres, like novels or textbooks, lacked economic justification. The author posits that chronicles as a distinct literary genre only became widespread with the advent of cheaper paper and printing technologies. The mass demand for national histories, specifically "good" and "ancient" ones to differentiate nations, arose after the
Peace of Westphalia (1648) and the emergence of nation-states.
Rome's Thousand-Year Architectural Anomaly
Chapter One delves into a striking
"thousand-year architectural gap" in Rome between the 4th and 14th centuries. During this extensive period, Tamansky claims "NOT A SINGLE building or structure was built that has survived to this day, even in ruins." All extant dilapidated buildings are deemed "ancient," while medieval structures pre-14th century are said to have "burned to the ground," been "destroyed by barbarians," or "rebuilt." The author points to the brickwork in supposedly "ancient" Roman monuments like the Baths of Caracalla and Circus Maximus, arguing that this technology was only "revived" in the 15th century. This architectural void is further highlighted by the official chronology of architectural styles, which, unlike other European cities, shows a noticeable absence of Romanesque or Gothic buildings bridging the gap between Roman antique and Renaissance architecture in Rome.
Siena: The Original Catholic Center?
Chapter Two presents a radical idea:
Siena, not Rome, was originally the center of the Catholic world. Evidence includes the inlaid marble floors of Siena Cathedral (built 1215-1263), which depict the Capitoline Wolf as Siena's symbol, with other cities like Rome (symbolized by an elephant) shown as subordinate. The author suggests the Romulus and Remus legend is a later invention, and the babies with the she-wolf are actually Senius and Ascius, Siena's mythical founders. The presence of papal symbols (tiara and keys) in Siena Cathedral further supports its historical papal significance. Pope Pius II (Aeneas Silvio Piccolomini) is identified as a key figure in the "founding" of Rome as the Catholic capital around
1460-1461. His suppression of a republican uprising in Rome, massacring its inhabitants, and the canonization of Catherine of Siena (a Sienese native) in 1461, hint that popes relocated from Siena to Rome, not from Avignon. The timely discovery of large alum deposits near Rome in 1461, crucial for textile dyes and gunpowder, could have propelled Rome's rise and its separation from Siena's influence. Tamansky concludes that
1460 or 1461 marks the true beginning of Rome's history as the capital of the Papal States and the center of the Catholic world.
The Triumph of Paganism in Renaissance Rome
In Chapter Three, the author presents visual evidence from Vatican villas, papal tombs, and fountains to argue that
Renaissance popes were "indifferent to Christian symbolism" but deeply invested in "pagan cult of ancient Roman gods and deities." Examples include Villa Giulia and Spada Palace decorated with fauns and the coats of arms of Pope Julius III and Henry II; Pope Pius IV's villa in Vatican Gardens; Pope Sixtus V's tomb with no Christian themes; Pope Leo XI's tomb flanked by Minerva and Fortuna; Triton Fountain commissioned by Pope Urban VIII featuring a sea god; and Pope Gregory XIII's tomb with Clio and Minerva. Even into the 19th century, Christian symbolism only gradually appeared on papal tombs. The author suggests that Renaissance popes lived a "pagan way of life," further underscored by Raphael Santi's burial in the Pantheon, a "temple of all gods." Tamansky concludes that
the Renaissance is the "original" antiquity, from which a "tracing was taken to create 'Antiquity' and transfer inconvenient historical events into the distant past."
The Universal Nature of the Roman Church
Chapter Four explores the "universal" (Catholic) nature of the Roman Church during the Renaissance. It cites the 1582 dialogue between Pope Gregory XIII's envoy Antonio Possevino and Ivan IV (the Terrible), where Ivan states that the "faith of Rome... is divided into sixty different faiths and confessions," implying the Catholic Church encompassed many religions. This aligns with Edward Gibbon's description of Roman religion as "compatible with all sects" and polytheistic. The chapter draws parallels between 16th-century popes and early Christian Roman emperors, both showing patronage to intellectuals and various philosophical schools. The author suggests that early Christians were persecuted not for their belief in Christ, but for their refusal to place Christ "among" other gods, insisting on monotheistic exclusivity.
When Did Gaius Julius Caesar Truly Live?
Chapter Five posits that
Gaius Julius Caesar lived in the 15th century, not the 1st century BC. This argument is based on medieval and Renaissance engravings, frescoes, tapestries, and book miniatures depicting Julius Caesar with the
double-headed eagle of the Holy Roman Empire (HRE). The author stresses the strict adherence to heraldry in those times, making "anachronism" unlikely. The double-headed eagle was adopted as the HRE's national emblem under Emperor Sigismund in 1434. The chapter also provides evidence that the Roman Senate, associated with the "SPQR" motto, existed and functioned in the Middle Ages and Renaissance (e.g., participating in Charles V's coronation in 1530 and appearing on Rome's coat of arms from the 14th century), contradicting the official narrative of its disappearance around 630 AD.
Pope Julius II: The Real Julius Caesar?
Chapter Six proposes that
Pope Julius II (1503-1513) was the historical figure upon whom the image of Gaius Julius Caesar was based. The author notes the physical resemblance between Rex Harrison's portrayal of both figures in films. Pope Julius II, whose secular name was Giuliano della Rovere, was a "warrior pope" and "military leader," and held the title of Pontifex Maximus, also held by Gaius Julius Caesar. The chapter cites Dutch Wikipedia stating that Giuliano (Julius II) "led the army of Todi, Spoleto and Città di Castello as papal legate," suggesting he commanded military forces, a role traditionally associated with emperors. Pope Julius II "presented himself as a kind of emperor-pope" and led armies under the imperial slogan "Drive out the barbarians."
The Renaissance of Judaism in Christian Rome
Chapter Seven argues that
16th-century Rome was not exclusively Christian but tolerant of various religions, including Judaism. Popes like Alexander VI Borgia and Leo X showed favor to Jews, allowing communities with synagogues and establishing a Hebrew department at the University of Rome. The chapter highlights the "turning to the Tanakh" (Old Testament) alongside pagan antiquity during the Renaissance, citing Michelangelo's sculptures of David and Moses. A commemorative medal of Pope Leo X (1513-1521) with the inscription "THE VICTORIOUS LION OF THE TRIBE OF JUDAH" is presented as evidence that the Pope was not strictly Christian in the modern sense. The author contends that this contradicts the Nicene Creed (325 AD), which proclaimed separation from Judaism, suggesting the Council of Nicaea and its dogmas were later inventions or confirmations, specifically at the
Council of Trent (1545-1563). The lack of Christian symbols on Pope Julius II's tomb, which features a "horned" Moses, further supports the blending of religious influences. The chapter asserts that
80% of the Bible is Judaism (Torah), questioning the narrative of early separation.
The True Age of the Old Testament
Chapter Eight argues that the
Old Testament, particularly Genesis, was written no earlier than the 15th century. This reasoning is based on the description of two technologies in Genesis that only appeared in the 15th century: the construction of large sea vessels (Noah's Ark), requiring industrially produced boards from mechanical sawmills (widespread in the 16th century), and multi-story buildings from baked brick (Tower of Babel), with standard fired bricks used in Russia from the end of the 15th century. The author posits that the Old Testament, like "The Tale of Bygone Years," was written during the era of emerging nation-states (Renaissance/Reformation), serving as an "ethnic 'inventory.'" The Tower of Babel story symbolizes the transition from an "imperial" era of unity to a "post-imperial" era of confused languages and scattered peoples. Ancient Bible manuscripts like the Vatican and Sinaiticus Codices were "first mentioned" or "discovered" in the 15th-19th centuries, and modern tests show some Dead Sea Scrolls are fakes.
The Battle of Alesia: Caesar with Cannons
Chapter Nine analyzes Melchior Fezelen's 1533 painting "The Battle of Alesia," which depicts Caesar's army using
cannons, guns (arquebuses), mortars, and the double-headed eagle of the Holy Roman Empire. The defending Gauls also have cannons. Official history labels these as "anachronisms," but the author argues that battle painters do not invent such details; they copy them from real life. The chapter contends that this painting depicts a real battle from the
Burgundian Wars (late 15th century), suggesting that Gaius Julius Caesar was a military leader of that time, later becoming Pope Julius II. The presence of Swiss landsknechts, who served Giuliano della Rovere (future Pope Julius II) and later became the Vatican Guard, further supports this re-dating.
Caesar, Caesarea, and the Triumphal Columns
Chapter Ten explores "Caesar" as a title for sovereign or emperor, noting its connection to "Kaiser" and "tsar." The author highlights that "Caesarea" was the name of the Holy Roman Empire. The Habsburgs, Holy Roman Emperors, traced their lineage back to the Julian dynasty and Gaius Julius Caesar. The noble Colonna family of Renaissance Italy is linked to the Habsburgs, as Charles V's coat of arms features two columns, and Marcantonio I Colonna was a close associate of Pope Julius II. Marcantonio II Colonna's monument displays the double-headed eagle of the HRE, and he celebrated a "triumph in the ancient Roman manner" in 1571, blurring lines between ancient Rome and the Renaissance. The chapter suggests that Mark Antony, Julius Caesar's close associate, was also an "emperor" in the Renaissance context. The "triumphal 'imperial' columns in Rome" (Trajan, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius) are associated with the Antonine dynasty, which the author connects to the Colonna family. The chapter questions how pagan columns honoring persecutors of Christians came to be topped with statues of Peter and Paul, suggesting that "the faith of Rome was divided into 60 different faiths and religions," where paganism and Christianity coexisted.
The Julian Calendar: A Renaissance Innovation
Chapter Twelve (the first of two with this label in the provided text) addresses the
Julian calendar, asserting that before 1500 AD, there was no international calendar; each state used its own. The author argues that the Julian calendar was introduced by
Pope Julius II (or Julius Caesar, his earlier persona) around 1492 AD (the 7000th year from the Creation of the World), as a single imperial calendar for newly forming supranational structures. This calendar was based on a biblical postulate that "Adam was born in the middle of the sixth day of God, and for God one day is like 1000 years." The chapter contends that all documents dated before "1500 AD" or "7000 AD" are fakes. The author suggests that the "from Adam" era (Julian calendar) was later deliberately shifted to "from the Nativity of Christ" (Gregorian calendar) to obscure its true origin.
Gospel Events and the Rise of Banking
The second "Chapter Twelve" argues that
Gospel events took place at the end of the 15th century, as they required specific "technical conditions" such as
metal coinage and banking infrastructure. The author notes that the oldest bank still in existence was founded in Siena in 1472, suggesting mass money circulation and banking infrastructure did not exist much earlier. The expulsion of bankers by popes and kings in earlier centuries (as described in official history) is deemed "nonsense," arguing that monetary circulation could not happen without banks. The appearance of metal money is linked to the era of printing (14th-15th centuries), when technologies for mass copying and production of various materials, including coins, appeared. The discovery of "ancient Roman" and Ottoman coins in Japan in the same hoard, officially dated to centuries apart, is presented as evidence that these empires and their coinage existed concurrently, around the 16th-17th centuries.
St. Peter's Crucifixion: A Late 15th Century Event?
Chapter Thirteen claims that
St. Peter was crucified at the end of the 15th or beginning of the 16th century. The author points out that the Vatican Hippodrome, where St. Peter was supposedly crucified under Emperor Nero in 64 AD, still existed in the mid-16th century, according to Pirro Ligorio's plan of Rome. This map also shows that the Vatican was still being built up with modern buildings alongside "ancient" structures. The author suggests that Emperor Nero is connected to Pope Leo X (Giovanni de' Medici), who was known for his secular lifestyle and personal command of troops in the Italian War of 1521-1526. The name "Nero" (meaning "black") is linked to Giovanni "delle Bande Nere" (meaning "of the Black Bands"), a condottiere often seen as a literary character used by historians to cover up Pope Leo X's military actions and association with the name Nero. An inscription on Leo X's tomb referring to him as "Princeps" and having the SPQRP (Roman Senate-Principate) abbreviation further blurs the lines between Renaissance popes and ancient Roman emperors.
Emperor Constantine I the Great: A 15th-Century South Slav?
Chapter Fourteen challenges the traditional narrative of Constantine's conversion to Christianity and his historical dating. The "Donation of Constantine," a document claiming Constantine transferred power over Western Europe to the Pope, is presented as a forgery created by the papal curia around the mid-8th century, with its forgery exposed by Lorenzo della Valla in 1440 (published 1517). The author argues that this "fake" was likely "concocted" no earlier than the second half of the 17th century to legitimize the "Gift of Constantine" as an ancient document. Engravings from the 16th century depict Saint Helena, Constantine's mother, with a shield bearing a double-headed eagle and three crowns, symbols associated with Serbia and Macedonia. Since the double-headed eagle with halos was adopted by the Holy Roman Empire in 1434, this suggests
Constantine existed around the 15th century, and was of South Slavic origin (born in Serbia). The Arch of Constantine, using "spolia" (elements from older monuments) and celebrating a civil war victory, is also implied to be a later construction.
Defining the "Roman Empire" and "Roman Emperors"
Chapter Fifteen argues that the
Roman Empire was not a single state but a "system of relations between the states... a customs union" or "trade union," akin to the EU or NAFTA. Roman legions are described as NATO-like units, serving the emperor who was chosen by local monarchs and crowned by the Pope. Emperors, holding an elective title often renewed annually, minted regional currency to pay their legions, allowing the imperial center to save on maintenance. The author states that in the late Roman Empire, there were "many emperors at the same time," each appointed to a specific military-administrative district (e.g., "Germanic," "Parthian"). The Roman Catholic Church played a crucial role by providing social infrastructure (schools, hospitals) and "civil servants" for the entire Empire through its orders and universities. The "religious wars" of the 16th-17th centuries are reinterpreted as conflicts over the distribution of income between local (national) and "federal" (imperial) authorities, with religious differences used as a mobilization tool. The chapter concludes that the
Roman Empire existed from the second half of the 15th century until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which divided Europe into "national (ethno-confessional) apartments" and ended the institution of "Roman emperors."
Roman Emperors as Turkish Sultans: The Hagia Sophia Riddle
Chapter Sixteen presents the radical claim that "
ancient Roman" emperors and Turkish sultans lived at the same time. It uses the discovery of "ancient Roman" and Ottoman coins in the same Japanese hoard (officially dated centuries apart) as primary evidence. The chapter argues that Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent (1494-1566) wearing a papal tiara and Sultan Mehmed III (1595-1603) wearing a crown with a cross indicate that they were not Muslims in the modern sense, or that Islam then had different canons. The Quran's depiction of Jesus (Isa) as a prophet, rejection of the crucifixion, and only a single mention of Muhammad are noted. Mosaics in St. Mark's Basilica and Hagia Sophia depicting figures with Christian symbols (crosses, Christ's monogram, tiaras) resembling those of sultans further support the argument. Plans of Constantinople from 1520 and 1572 show a Romanesque-style Hagia Sophia, not the modern cross-domed one, and no mosques or minarets, implying the current Hagia Sophia was built much later than the official 6th century date. The author contends that "Turks" was a Western invention for the peoples of Constantinople (Eastern Rome), and that Ottoman (Turkish) language was created only in 1928 by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, with the Ottoman Empire originally using Church Slavonic as a leading language at court. The chapter concludes that the
Ottomans were a dynasty of Eastern Roman emperors with South Slavic roots, who adopted an "Eastern image" to distinguish themselves from the West.
The Baptism of Rus': A Later, Different Meaning
Chapter Seventeen questions the official date and meaning of the "
Baptism of Rus'." It highlights Antonio Possevino's 1582 claim that Christianity was established in Rome "twelve centuries earlier than in Muscovy," a difference twice as large as the official 675 years between 313 AD (Rome) and 988 AD (Rus'). The Cathedral of St. Basil the Blessed (1555–1561) is presented as evidence against early Christianization, noting its initial lack of an iconostasis and floral frescoes, which do not fit Christian canons. The "
988 AD" date for the Baptism of Rus' is attributed to German historians Bayer, Miller, and Schlozer in the 18th century, to align Russian history with the "extended history of Western Europe." The author proposes that "
baptism" (kreschenie) does not derive from "cross" or "Christ," but from "kresalo" (flint), meaning "to strike a flint with a fire-starter," signifying initiation or coming to life. The flint is noted as a sacred symbol in various cultures and on coats of arms. The presence of "baptism" among Jews in the Gospel of John is cited as evidence of its pre-Christian origin. The chapter also discusses the Roman plaque on the Spasskaya Tower of the Moscow Kremlin (dated 1491), which mentions Ivan Vasilyevich tracing his lineage to Augustus Caesar, further reinforcing Moscow's connection to the Roman Empire during the Renaissance period. Isidore of Kyiv, Metropolitan of All Rus' (1438-1458), is revealed to be a Catholic from the noble Roman Colonna family, buried in Rome. The idea of "
Moscow - the Third Rome" is argued to have appeared no earlier than 1589, when Moscow received patriarchal status.
The Council of Trent: After the Religious Wars?
Chapter Eighteen argues that the
Council of Trent, officially dated 1545–1563, actually took place after the Religious Wars (ending 1648) and the Peace of Westphalia. The author questions why the council would occur in the middle of ongoing wars and why it took over a century for another Catholic council to be held. It's contended that the council's purpose was not to "give an answer to the Reformation" but to formalize the "new confessional principles" that emerged after the Protestants secured a significant part of Europe. The chapter highlights that the Council of Trent "
accepted almost ALL the provisions of the so-called Augsburg Confession of the Protestants." This, coupled with the fact that the Nicene Creed ("Triune God") was "confirmed" at Trent, suggests there was no established Nicene Creed before the Protestants adopted "their" creed. The author concludes that Christianity, as an exclusive religion, was born in the Protestant environment to unite peoples against the papal throne.
Operation "Anno Domini": Hiding History
Chapter Nineteen details how the "
Anno Domini" dating system was part of a political project to push Christian history into deep antiquity. The author argues that the Council of Nicaea (325 AD), where Jesus Christ was recognized as God and Arianism condemned, was the "real reflection" of the Council of Trent (1545-1563). The dogma of the Trinity (God the Father, God the Son, Holy Spirit) was a "
joint political project of Protestants and Catholics" to make Christ "God (Domini)" and legitimize the "anno domini dating" in numerous historical sources. The original meaning of "anno ab incarnatione domini" ("in the year from the incarnation of the Lord") referred to the incarnation of God in Adam. This meaning was later substituted to "from the Nativity of Christ." The chapter cites the
mass execution of "several hundred thousand unfortunate Piedmontese and thousands of Calabrians suspected of belonging to the Protestant faith" in 1561 by Pope Pius IV as evidence of the Church's systemic power, indicating a major conflict needing to be hidden. The unification of the Pentateuch of Moses (Catholic) and the Gospel (Protestant) into one Bible is seen as an act of reconciliation after the Peace of Westphalia. Debates over the Trinity and other Christian dogmas continued well into the 17th-19th centuries, suggesting these dogmas were newly established at Trent. The presence of Adam's skull and bones at the base of the Crucifixion cross in Renaissance art symbolizes the replacement of the "from Adam" era with the "from Christ" era.
The Gregorian Calendar: A 17th-Century Innovation?
Chapter Twenty argues that
Arabic numerals and the decimal system appeared much later than officially claimed, no earlier than the 17th century. Russia's use of the Cyrillic numeral system until 1703 and the publication of multiplication tables in Cyrillic in 1682 are presented as evidence that these systems were not widespread in Europe centuries earlier. The author suggests that the Gregorian calendar, introduced by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582, was invented no earlier than the second half of the 17th century. Its stated reasons—to correct Easter dating and align the vernal equinox with March 21—are questioned. The precise calculation of a 10-day shift since the Council of Nicaea (325 AD) is deemed improbable given the lack of heliocentric theory acceptance by the Vatican until much later. The Paschalia, a complex method for calculating Easter, was invented to legitimize the new extended chronology. The chapter cites a bronze medal of Pope Gregory XIII celebrating the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre (1572) as evidence that his priorities were not calendrical reform but fighting Protestants.
Moscow – The Third Rome in the Renaissance Context
Chapter Twenty-One analyzes the concept of "
Moscow - the Third Rome." The author argues that Ivan the Terrible's claim of lineage from Augustus Caesar and Moscow's declaration as the Third Rome (late 1523 - early 1524) only make sense if "
Antiquity is the Renaissance." The "fall" of the "two Romes" (Rome and Constantinople) before Moscow became the "Third" is reinterpreted. Rome's "sack" in 1527 did not constitute a "fall," and Constantinople in the 16th century was still in the "dawn" of Christianity, not "at the feet of the infidels" (as shown by maps with no mosques). The author proposes that
Moscow, or Muscovy, gained geopolitical significance in the second half of the 16th century, becoming the third control center of a single "Roman Empire." This empire had three centers: Rome (Western and North-Eastern Europe), Constantinople (South-Eastern Europe, Middle East, North Africa), and Moscow (controlling the "Astrakhan - Arkhangelsk" waterway). Moscow's status as a patriarchate in 1589 formalized its position. The chapter also highlights Metropolitan Isidore of Kyiv (mid-15th century) being a Catholic from the Roman Colonna family, demonstrating Moscow's entanglement with Western imperial structures.
The 17th Century: Still "Antiquity"
Chapter Twenty-Two provides evidence that the "
ancient" period extended into the 17th century. A 1652 world map by Nicolas Piscator depicts 12 Roman Caesars from Julius Caesar to Domitian, suggesting these emperors were contemporary figures or their stories were still unfolding in the 17th century. The author argues against the "anachronism" explanation, noting the specific selection of emperors implies a contemporary relevance. The chapter's most compelling evidence is the
eruption of Mount Vesuvius, officially dated to 79 AD, but presented as occurring in 1631. This is supported by 1575 maps showing Pompeii as a "living city" and a 1633 Jesuit book detailing the 1631 eruption, even showing pre- and post-eruption towns including Pompeii and Herculaneum. The aqueduct built by Domenico Fontana (1543–1607) under Pompeii at the end of the 16th century is cited as "irrefutable" proof that the city was not buried in 79 AD, as Fontana would have discovered it then. The chapter also suggests a connection between Emperor Titus Flavius Vespasian ("Kaiser Titus," painted 1622) and Pope Urban VIII (1623-1644), noting the similar "wasp-like" meaning of their names.
Reconstructing the Roman Empire's History
The concluding Chapter Twenty-Three synthesizes Tamansky's reconstructed history:
- Constantinople (Rome on the Bosphorus) was the center of world commodity flows until the second half of the 15th century.
- Western Europe gained a technological advantage due to its Alpine resources.
- The "Trojan War," "Church Schism of 1054," and "capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453" reflect the expulsion of Western Europeans from Constantinople by other clans.
- Pope Pius II (Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini) is seen as the "reflection of the Trojan Aeneas," founding the new Rome in Italy.
- "Turks" were a Western invention for the Eastern Romans.
- Crusades before the 15th century are fictional.
- Jesus Christ is a real person from the late 15th century (or composite image), with his story later mythologized.
- The crucifixion myth was invented in the West to demonize "Turks" and justify "crusades."
- The Roman Empire of the "ancient" eras was the Western Catholic Europe from the late 15th to mid-17th century, a "customs union" that fragmented after the Peace of Westphalia.
- "Caesar" was the highest imperial title of secular power, and "Emperor" the highest military title.
- The Holy Roman Empire is an invention by historians to replace the real Roman Empire.
- The Ottoman Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire until the mid-17th century, with Arian Christianity as its state religion, from which Islam gradually developed as a protective measure against the West.
- The "Hundred Years' War of Religion" is a myth used to fill the historical space cleared by the re-dating of the Roman Empire.
- "Religious wars" were actually conflicts between the Roman Empire and national elites over income distribution.
- Antiquity is the Renaissance, with the "Dark Ages of the Middle Ages" being a political project of Protestants and Catholics.
- The unification of Catholic and Protestant scriptures into the Bible was an act of reconciliation after Westphalia, implying the Council of Trent occurred post-1648.
The chapter concludes by likening the Roman Empire's capitalist cycle to the British Empire's and the current US-led empire, suggesting empires are not eternal and human development continuously evolves.
